Management Practice in USA

1.0 Introduction

Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely used term. All organizations - business, political, cultural or social are involved in management because it helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose. According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”. According to F.W. Taylor, “Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way”.

Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group efforts towards the attainment of certain pre - determined goals. It is the process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the goals of the organization, by efficiently using limited resources in the changing world. Of course, these goals may vary from one enterprise to another. E.g.: For one enterprise it may be launching of new products by conducting market surveys and for other it may be profit maximization by minimizing cost.

Different country possesses different management style across the world. This difference occurs based on their economy, political environment and culture. United States is the country which has the highest management score.

1.1 Background of the Country

We choose the United States of America as our term paper topic. The population of the United States is 300 million people of mixed races and heritage. Although the population is predominantly of European descent, the country has been a welcoming beacon to immigrants from virtually every country and culture in the world. English is the predominant language, although languages from many foreign countries are spoken within cultural enclaves throughout the U.S. The majority of American's (U.S.) are Christian.

The United States of America consists of 50 states governed on a federal level, as well as a state level. Laws are written at both levels, and when doing business in the United States one must make sure to meet the requirements mandated by these laws. The country is very litigious so legal resources are available and specialists can be found to assist with any transaction.

The culture economy and geographic location of an area will influence how business is done. Traditionally, the East Coast is more conservative and formal in their dress and manners than the West Coast. That is not to say a West Coast meeting carries any less importance. The climate and lifestyle are just more relaxed, which is reflected in the pace and informality.

2.0 Management Practice in the United States

In USA management mean supervising others to get a job done. American management practice can be described as individualistic in approach, in so far as managers are accountable for the decisions made within their areas of responsibility. Although important decisions might be discussed in open forum, the ultimate responsibility for the consequences of the decision lies with the boss — support or seeming consensus will evaporate when things go wrong

Therefore, American managers are more likely to disregard the opinions of subordinates than managers in other, more consensus or compromise- oriented cultures. Importance is linked to power, which could be determined by a number of factors such as head-count responsibility, profitability of sector or strategic importance to the organization at that point in time.

 

3.0 Components of Management Practice

Management practice of a country can be defined by its components. Management has 5 components.

Fig: Components of Management

4.0 Planning and Decision Making Process of USA

In U.S. organizations, decisions are made primarily by people and usually only a few people are involved. Consequently, after the decision has been made, it has to be sold to others, often to people with different values and different perceptions of what the problem really is and how it should be solved. In this way, the decision making is rather fast, but its implementation is very time-consuming and requires compromises with those managers holding different viewpoints. The decision that is eventually implemented may be less than ideal because of the compromises necessary to appease those with divergent opinions. It is true that decision responsibility can be traced to people, but at the same time, this may result in a practice of finding "scapegoats" for wrong decisions. In all, the decision power and the responsibility is vested in certain people in U.S. companies, while in Japan people share both decision power as well as responsibility.

•          Primarily short term orientation: The planning process of USA is primarily short term oriented. They prioritize the present benefit over the long term benefit.
•       Individual decision making: In USA decision making process is individual; one person on behalf of the organization can take the decision.
•         Involvement of few people in making the decision: In USA organization the decision making process don’t require whole of the organization. They prefer few to attend the meeting to save time.
•       Decision initiated at top, flowing down: Decisions are primarily initiated from top level then flow toward the lower level of employee.
•      Fast decision making: As the decision making process require few people and less formality it is usually fast in nature.
•           Clear and specific decision Responsibility

5.0 Organizing Process of USA

Organizing is a systematic process of structuring, integrating, coordinating task goals, and activities to resources in order to attain objectives. Organizations in the United States emphasize individual responsibility, with efforts to clarify and make explicit who is responsible for what. Job descriptions are perhaps the best evidence of this. Many organizations, especially those operating in a stable environment, have been rather successful in using the formal bureaucratic organization structure. As far as the climate is concerned, not many managers make special efforts to create a commonly shared organization culture. This may indeed be difficult because professionals-managers as well as technical people-often have a closer identification with their profession than with a particular company. In addition, the work force often consists of people with different values derived from diverse heritages. Many U.S. companies have a high

employee turnover rate, which is partly due to the great mobility of the people in this country. With a relatively short duration of employment with any one company, the loyalty toward the company is at times rather low. Organizational change is often accomplished by changing goals instead of processes. But organizations using change agents with a behavioral science orientation may focus on interpersonal processes to reduce conflicts and improve performance. In the United States it is quite common to use outside organization development consultants. Summarized as-

1.      Formal, bureaucratic organizational structure

2.      Individual responsibility and accountability

3.      Lack of common organizational culture

4.      Identification with profession rather than with company

5.1 Organizational Hierarchy in USA

Organizational hierarchy refers to the way that an organization arranges people and jobs so that its work can be performed and its goals can be met. Organizational Hierarchy in the USA are incredibly varied but tend to have several characteristics in common

USA business hierarchy structures are mostly created to achieve a goal as well as support everybody involved in the organization. In USA business governance designations, positions and duties are clearly mentioned. USA business culture also gives ample freedom to their people to achieve goal with rigid duties.   The USA business hierarchy includes following designations.

General Organizational Hierarchy of USA

5.1.1 Managing director

Generally managing director is founder of organization or his successor. The major role of managing director is to make sure that the organization achieves its goals, and he provides leadership as well as direction to the staff. He is the highest position in the organization.

5.1.2 Chief executive officer

CEO is the second highest position in the organizational hierarchy. The major role of CEO is to implement all decision taken by managing director and broad of directors. He is responsible for day to day running as well as management of the organization and overall performance of the company.  He has to develop and deliver organizations strategic plan in efficient and effective manner.

5.1.3 Board of directors

This group is sub-ordinate to managing director. Managing director delegates his responsibilities to the board of directors. It is a body of appointed or elected members who together oversee activities of an organization.  The duties of board of directors include governing the company by finalizing board policies as well as objectives.  Other major role of board of directors are approving annual budgets as well as ensuring the accessibility of financial resources.

5.1.4 General Managers

These people are responsible for planning, coordinating and organizing to achieve targeted sale and profit of the company. They provide vision and leadership to the company by assisting board as well as staff.  They are authorized to execute policies to strength the revenues as well as reduce operational costs, which translate into profit. Their title varies from industry to industry.

5.1.5 Managers

They concentrate on the strength of their staff and motivate people to deliver their best. They create favorable atmosphere for people to work for the growth of organization. The major responsibility of any manager is to utilize the system in such a manner that it can create internet profit. They play effective role to motivate staff for the betterment of the organization.

5.1.6 Staff

Every organization requires skillful and dedicated staff to establish in competitive world of business. Top level managements can make policies but it is staff which implements these policies in day to day business affairs. Hence role of staff is very important in the growth of any organization.

6.0 Staffing Process of USA

Staffing is the selection and training of individuals for specific job functions, and charging them with the associated responsibilities. USA has some distinct characteristics which make create difference from other countries.

• People hired out of school and from other company: USA creates an extremely active external labor market, hence US firms are more likely to hire, at all level of the organization from external labor market such as People hired out of school and from other company
•  Frequent company change: In USA people switch job more frequently if they get better              opportunity.
•  Loyalty to profession: In USA work is widely team based and when the goal of the team accomplished teams are reconfigured, people move to different team. Here people have loyalty to one’s profession and project greater than to organization itself.
•  Comprehensive performance evaluation usually once a year: Employee’s performance are evaluated comprehensively after a certain period
•   Appraisal of short term result: Feedback for work is given quickly on the basis of short term result.
•   Promotion based on individual performance: In USA individual expertise are given greater importance and promotion are given based on individual performance.
• Training and development undertaken with hesitation as switching rate of employee is high
• Job insecurity prevailing. 

7.0 HR Management Practice of USA

RECRUITMENT

The United States uses a recruitment system which is neither strongly career based nor position based. Entry into the public sector is conducted by direct application and interview for a specific post and most posts are open to external applicants. A very small Percentage of positions are filled through a centralized examination. Preference in recruitment is given to certain military veterans but there are no other diversity policies in place regarding recruitment.

7.1 Pay Setting

Base salaries are set by statute and adjusted by the president or Congress whereas bonuses are handled at the agency level. Generally there is no negotiation, neither at the individual nor collective level, over remuneration. Base salary is indexed to the Employment Cost Index by default and all remuneration is revised annually. Job content and seniority is of high importance to base salary levels for almost all employment levels, with relevant experience also factoring in. Seniority pay is in use and previous salary level and the number of years in similar positions factor into pay levels.

7.2 Promotion

Qualifications are the key determinant of promotions for all levels of staff, with experience and performance appraisals not being considered of major importance. Postings are published on transparent listings open to all employees, applications are reviewed by the HR department to shortlist candidates, and there is systematic use of selection panels and some use of assessment centers. There are no formal restrictions to promotion between hierarchical grades. Specially directed information sessions and coaching are available to further the promotion of women, the disabled and other minorities.

7.3 Mobility

The level of internal mobility in the United States public sector remains stable and there are no plans to increase or decrease it. Public servants on external posting retain the right to return to their position and risk forgoing their pension rights if they do not return.

7.4 Training

Some public employees receive training upon entry, depending on the requirements of the specific post and the needs of the employee. On average, employees undertake 1-3 days of training per year.

 7.5 Performance

The United States uses performance assessment in HR decisions to the same extent as the average OECD country. Performance assessment is mandatory for almost all employees and takes the form of a meeting with the immediate superior every six months and annual written feedback. A fair range of criteria is used in assessment, which focuses on outputs, competencies and interpersonal skills. Assessment is of high importance for career advancement and remuneration. The United States uses significantly more performance-related pay (PRP) than the average OECD country. PRP is mandatory for most employees, takes the form of one-off bonuses and permanent pay increments, and represents 1-5% of base salary.

7.6 Work Conditions

The average yearly working hours in the United States public sector, 1 840 hours in 2010, is reasonably high compared to the OECD average of 1 745 hours. This is driven by higher than average weekly working hours and a few days less annual leave. Data is not available regarding the average number of sick days taken but a policy of counting unused sick days toward annuity is in place to curb absenteeism

8.0 Leading Process of USA

 The managerial function of leading is carried out quite differently in U.S. companies. Leaders are seen as decision-makers and heading the group; they are expected to be directive, strong, and determined. Their job is to integrate diverse values, but the emphasis on individualism in the society in general and in organizations in particular may hinder cooperation. Managers are expected to take decisive actions, and clarify the direction of the group or the business, even if this requires face-to-face confrontation with those who may disagree. Although managers work hard, they value their private lives and separate them from their work. Within the organization, the communication pattern is to a great extent from the top down the hierarchy, with considerable emphasis given to written communication.

9.0 Controlling Process of USA

Control in the United States often means measuring performance against precise standards. Management by objectives, widely practiced in this country, requires the setting of verifiable objectives against which individual performance is measured. This way the superior can trace deviations to specific people and this frequently results in fixing the blame. In an attempt to maximize individual results, group performance may suffer. We all can think of examples in which the self-interest of people was placed before group or organizational interest. The use of quality control programs is not new. Hughes Aircraft, for example, had such programs for a long time under the names of "zero defects" and "value engineering." Many of these programs were developed in this country and later used by the Japanese in the improvement of their product quality and productivity. 

1.      Leader acting as the decision maker and  head of the group

2.      Directive style. Strong and determined by firm.

3.      Often divergent values, individualism sometimes hindering corporation,

4.      Face to face confrontation common, emphasize on clarity.

5.      Communication primarily top down.

10.0 Organizational Culture of USA

Organizational culture refers to the values and behaviors that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization.

Organizational culture includes an organization's expectations, experiences, philosophy, and values that hold it together, and is expressed in its self-image, inner workings, interactions with the outside world, and future expectations. It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and written and unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are considered valid. Also called corporate culture

If we explore the US culture through the Hofestede’s cultural dimension, we can get a good overview of the deep driving factors of USA’s organizational culture relative to other cultures in our world. By supplying you with this information please realize that culture describes a central tendency in society. Everybody is unique, yet social control ensures that most people will not deviate too much from the norm. Moreover, within every country regional cultural differences exist, also in the States. Americans, however, don’t need to go to a cultural briefing before moving to another state successfully.

10.1 Power Distance

The fact that everybody is unique implies that we are all unequal. One of the most salient aspects of inequality is the degree of power each person exerts or can exert over other persons; power being defined as the degree to which a person is able to influence other people’s ideas and behavior.

This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal, and it expresses the attitude of the culture toward these power inequalities amongst us.  Power distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. It has to do with the fact that a society’s inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.

USA is a low power distance country meaning that people of USA expect and accept less inequalities in power distribution.

10.2 Individualism

The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members. In Individualist societies people are only supposed to look after themselves and their direct family. In Collectivist society’s people belong to “in groups” that take care of them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

• The American premise of “liberty and justice for all.” This is evidenced by an explicit emphasis on equal rights in all aspects of American society and government.
• Within American organizations, hierarchy is established for convenience, superiors are accessible and managers rely on individual employees and teams for their expertise. 
• Both managers and employees expect to be consulted and information is shared frequently.  At the same time, communication is informal, direct and participative to a degree.
• The society is loosely-knit in which the expectation is that people look after themselves and their immediate families only and should not rely (too much) on authorities for support. 
• There is also a high degree of geographical mobility in the United States. Americans are the best joiners in the world; however it is often difficult, especially among men, to develop deep friendships.
• Americans are accustomed to doing business or interacting with people they don’t know well. Consequently, Americans are not shy about approaching their prospective counterparts in order to obtain or seek information. In the business world, employees are expected to be self-reliant and display initiative.  Also, within the exchange-based world of work we see that hiring, promotion and decisions are based on merit or evidence of what one has done or can do.

10.3 Masculinity

A high score on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the “winner” or “best-in-the-field”. This value system starts in childhood and continues throughout one’s life – both in work and leisure pursuits.

A low score on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine).

The score of the US on Masculinity is high, and this can be seen in the typical American behavioral patterns. This can be explained by the combination of  a high Masculinity drive together with the most Individualist drive in the world. In other words, Americans, so to speak, all show their Masculine drive individually.

This American combination reflects itself in the following:

• Behavior in school, work, and play are based on the shared values that people should “strive to be the best they can be” and that “the winner takes all”. As a result, Americans will tend to display and talk freely about their “successes” and achievements in life. Being successful per se is not the great motivator in American society, but being able to show one’s success
• Many American assessment systems are based on precise target setting, by which American employees can show how well a job they did.
• There exists a “can-do” mentality which creates a lot of dynamism in the society, as it is believed that there is always the possibility to do things in a better way
• Typically, Americans “live to work” so that they can obtain monetary rewards and as a consequence attain higher status based on how good one can be.  Many white collar workers will move to a fancier neighborhood after each and every substantial promotion.
• It is believed that a certain degree of conflict will bring out the best of people, as it is the goal to be “the winner”. As a consequence, we see a lot of polarization and court cases. This mentality nowadays undermines the American premise of “liberty and justice for all.” Rising inequality is endangering democracy, because a widening gap among the classes may slowly push Power Distance up and Individualism down.

10.4 Uncertainty Avoidance

The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways.  The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance.

The US scores below average on the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension. . As a consequence, the perceived context in which Americans find themselves will impact their behavior more than if the culture would have either scored higher or lower. Thus, this cultural pattern reflects itself as follows:

• There is a fair degree of acceptance for new ideas, innovative products and a willingness to try something new or different, whether it pertains to technology, business practices or food.  Americans tend to be more tolerant of ideas or opinions from anyone and allow the freedom of expression.  At the same time, Americans do not require a lot of rules and are less emotionally expressive than higher-scoring cultures. 
• At the same time, 9/11 has created a lot of fear in the American society culminating in the efforts of government to monitor everybody through the NSA and other security organizations

10.5 Long Term Orientation

This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies priorities these two existential goals differently. Normative societies, which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honored traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

The United States scores normative on the fifth dimension with a low score of 26. This is reflected by the following:

• Americans are prone to analyze new information to check whether it is true. Thus, the culture doesn’t make most Americans pragmatic, but this should not be confused with the fact that Americans are very practical, being reflected by the “can-do” mentality mentioned above.
• The polarization mentioned above is, so to speak, strengthened by the fact that many Americans have very strong ideas about what is “good” and “evil”. This may concern issues such as abortion, use of drugs, euthanasia, weapons or the size and rights of the government versus the States and versus citizens.
• The US is the one of the only “Caucasian” countries in the world where, since the beginning of the 20^th century, visiting church has increased. This increase is also evident in some post-Soviet republics such as Russia.
• American businesses measure their performance on a short-term basis, with profit and loss statements being issued on a quarterly basis. This also drives individuals to strive for quick results within the work place. 

11.0 Business culture of USA

However, there are some traits that pop up in descriptions of US business culture again and again:

• Individualism
• Competitiveness
• Efficiency
• Informality
• Openness to innovation and change

These values influence etiquette and behavior in the workplace, as we see in this introduction to American work culture.

11.1 Meet and Greet

·         When Americans meet their future employers, co-workers, or business contacts for the first time, it is obviously time for introductions. A firm handshake and friendly smile are appropriate in a corporate setting, regardless of the other person’s gender, age, or seniority in the company.

·         They respect a "bubble" of personal space of two or three feet. However, while encroaching on other people’s space or casual touching, like hugs, is out of place in the office, maintaining eye contact while talking is a must. This applies even if it might not be respectful in some other cultures.

·         The lack of formality is also noticeable when it comes to names and titles. Calling everyone by their first name is standard in most American companies.

·         Gift giving is discouraged or limited by many US companies. A gracious written note is always appropriate and acceptable.

·         Business cards are generally exchanged during introductions. However, they may be exchanged when one party is leaving.

11.2 Communication Style

·         Introductions include one's title if appropriate, or Mr., Ms, Mrs. and the full name.

·         In general, the dominant style of communication in US business culture is friendly and to the point. "Yes", "no", and "maybe" normally mean just that; one don’t have to read a lot between the lines.

·         Good eye contact during business and social conversations shows interest, sincerity and confidence.

·         Business conversation may take place during meals. However, many times you will find more social conversation taking place during the actual meal

·         One is expected to express himself politely, but clearly, and it is assumed that one will ask directly if there is something he/she don’t know or understand. They prepared to be generous with compliments, though, and to word criticism carefully.

·         On the one hand, They get to the point soon and not talk around the issue

·         If there is any change or delay, they inform the other party without any delay

·         On the other hand, they avoid being considered as overly negative or rude in conversations. Too much bluntness appears unprofessional, and so do big emotional displays in a public setting, especially if voice feelings like disappointment or anger.

 

11.3 Dress for Success

Dress codes vary widely among regions and fields of employment in the United States. A Wall Street broker will wear a smart suit and shirt to work, while start-up employees in Silicon Valley might show up in shorts and t-shirt during office hours.

·         As a rule of thumb, be slightly overdressed rather than underdressed for job interview, an initial meeting, or at first day at work. For instance, if you schedule an appointment for a potential cooperation in finance and insurance, the most conservative choice should be first bet: dark suit, tie, and dress shoes for men, or an understated blazer, blouse, and skirt, as well as pantyhose and pumps, for women.

·         But if one is invited to a job interview in the creative industry, a "smart casual" outfit with a polo shirt and khaki pants for male applicants and nice slacks and a fashionable top for female candidates will go a long way. Just leave jeans, hoodies, and sneakers at home for the time being.

·        Once one knows the environment better, he/she may dress down, if appropriate. Even American offices with a formal business culture often have "Casual Friday" when people are allowed to wear a more relaxed outfit.

12.0 Why American Management Rules the World

American firms are on average the best managed in the world. There are some secrets behind their successful management practice. Good leadership and Employment policy are vital for US success.

Well managed firms thrash their poorly managed competitors
First, not surprisingly, we find that organizations with better management massively outperform their disorganized competitors. They make more money, grow faster, have far higher stock market values, and survive for longer.
The American Management Century
Second, when it comes to overall management, American firms outperform all others. This U.S. dominance occurs in the manufacturing, retail, and healthcare sectors (but interestingly, not in high schools). Japanese, German, and Swedish firms follow closely behind. In contrast, developing countries like Brazil, China, and India lag at the bottom of the management charts.

What is the secret sauce of management success?

One of the biggest drivers of these differences is variation in people management. American firms are ruthless at rapidly rewarding and promoting good employees and retraining or firing bad employees. The reasons are threefold.

1. The U.S. has tougher levels of competition. Large and open U.S. markets generate the type of rapid management evolution that allows only the best-managed firms to survive.
2. Human capital is important. America traditionally gets far more of its population into college than other nations.
3. The US has more flexible labor markets. It is much easier to hire and fire employees.

Many developing-country firms, even while trying to implement new techniques like Lean Management, ignore the fact that labor is different from other “inputs.” Many of the Chinese firms surveyed did not even employ managers who spoke the same language as the workers, relying on interpreters or basic sign-language for communication. As you can imagine, this does not lead to a feeling of mutual support between management and workers.

Changing the ranks and reaping the rewards
What lessons emerge for others wanting to reach the top of the ranking?
The answer is not for all firms to be more American but rather to consider some of the practices U.S. firms — and especially U.S. multinationals — continually exhibit and implement. Across all countries, organizations that properly incentivize talented workers, whether through promotion, pay, or other rewards, outperform others. As best practices spread and firms continue to implement these techniques they will narrow the existing gaps, reaping huge growth and profitability gains.

13.0 Conclusion

The American business environment is in a state of constant change, both in individual firms and across industries. There are many styles of management within the country, usually reflecting the type of work done within a company. Regulated or government-serving companies tend to be the most conservative, while businesses serving the public tend to be more creative and informal. Because the business environment in the United States is highly competitive across all industries, American companies are constantly seeking more effective methods of management and more efficient practices among their employees to boost productivity, lower costs and reduce attrition. American managers are required to remain aware of trends and new developments in management techniques and adjust their management practices to take advantage of these advances in knowledge. Jobs are continuously created and eliminated.

Companies and managers in the United States rely heavily on teams to complete tasks and projects and achieve objectives. Team members for a project may be drawn from various departments, and each member of the team possesses important skills that contribute to the group’s success. A team typically includes a combination of experienced senior staff members and junior staff.

It is the manager’s job to plan the team’s actions within the broader framework of the company’s or client’s needs, schedule and budget. Once the manager has created a plan, he or she must ensure the team members have everything they need to complete their tasks. Company teams tend to be transitory, so a manager’s group of subordinates is constantly changing, increasing the difficulty of forming strong relationships with those employees. On the other hand, the more employees a manager works with, the better able he or she is to choose the perfect team for later projects.

A manager’s most difficult job in a US company is reporting to three groups: the team, the company executives and the client (if there is one). US managers must find a balance that pleases all three. To overcome these obstacles, a successful manager must be a charismatic leader with a 'can do' attitude and leadership skills as strong as or stronger than their technical expertise in the field. While education is valued, demonstrated ability is much more important.

Management Practice in USA Download PDF

References

  Fred Luthans, Jonathan P. Doh, Seventh Edition, International Management

 Geert Hofstede, Cultural dimension theory.

Management, Wikipedia, Retrieved on 25^th August.

 Nicholas Bloom,Stanford University, NBER, Centre for Economic Performance and CEPR, MANAGEMENT IN AMERICA, January 2013.

Heinz Weihrich, Management Practices in theUnited States, Japan, and the People's Republic of China,  March 2015

Organizational culture,  http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-culture.html, Retrieved on 25^th August.

Staffing http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/staffing.html , Retrieved on 27^th August.